Petroleum Hydrocarbons (PHCs) - Revision history

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Jhurley at 18:02, 7 March 2022

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Jhurley: /* Fate and Transport */

2020-12-31T19:20:53Z

‎Fate and Transport

Jhurley: /* Fate and Transport */

2020-12-31T19:14:31Z

‎Fate and Transport

Jhurley at 12:15, 25 June 2020

2020-06-25T12:15:45Z

Jhurley at 21:04, 14 May 2020

2020-05-14T21:04:06Z

Jhurley: /* Fate and Transport */

2020-05-08T18:25:24Z

‎Fate and Transport

@@ Line 135: / Line 135: @@
 | colspan="11" style="text-align:left; background-color:white;" | Notes:</br>''K<sub>ow</sub>'' is the Octanol/Water partition coefficient (dimensionless).</br>MCL is the Maximum Contaminant Level.</br>* Total xylenes consist of three different chemical isomers (meta-xylene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene) but are typically regulated as total xylenes.
 |}
-</br>
+<br clear="left" />
 ==Environmental&nbsp;Concern==
 Because of the widespread use of petroleum fuels, a large number of the cleanup sites in the United States include PHC contamination. The nature of PHC contamination is highly variable since PHCs themselves are diverse mixtures of chemical components. Several aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, naphthalene, and chrysene are known or probable/possible human carcinogens and are classified as priority pollutants by the USEPA<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2014. Priority Pollutant List. [[media:USEPA-2014 Priority Pollutant List.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref>. Benzene and PAHs are ranked sixth and ninth, respectively, on the [[Wikipedia:Superfund | Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)]] [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/#2019spl Substance Priority List]. This list is a prioritization of substances based on their frequency, toxicity, and potential for human exposure at sites on the National Priorities List (NPL)<ref name="ATSDR 2019"/>. Benzene is often the main groundwater contaminant of concern at petroleum release sites because of its higher toxicity and mobility compared to other petroleum hydrocarbons.

@@ Line 135: / Line 135: @@
 | colspan="11" style="text-align:left; background-color:white;" | Notes:</br>''K<sub>ow</sub>'' is the Octanol/Water partition coefficient (dimensionless).</br>MCL is the Maximum Contaminant Level.</br>* Total xylenes consist of three different chemical isomers (meta-xylene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene) but are typically regulated as total xylenes.
 |}
-</br clear left>
+</br>
 ==Environmental&nbsp;Concern==
 Because of the widespread use of petroleum fuels, a large number of the cleanup sites in the United States include PHC contamination. The nature of PHC contamination is highly variable since PHCs themselves are diverse mixtures of chemical components. Several aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, naphthalene, and chrysene are known or probable/possible human carcinogens and are classified as priority pollutants by the USEPA<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2014. Priority Pollutant List. [[media:USEPA-2014 Priority Pollutant List.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref>. Benzene and PAHs are ranked sixth and ninth, respectively, on the [[Wikipedia:Superfund | Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)]] [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/#2019spl Substance Priority List]. This list is a prioritization of substances based on their frequency, toxicity, and potential for human exposure at sites on the National Priorities List (NPL)<ref name="ATSDR 2019"/>. Benzene is often the main groundwater contaminant of concern at petroleum release sites because of its higher toxicity and mobility compared to other petroleum hydrocarbons.

@@ Line 135: / Line 135: @@
 | colspan="11" style="text-align:left; background-color:white;" | Notes:</br>''K<sub>ow</sub>'' is the Octanol/Water partition coefficient (dimensionless).</br>MCL is the Maximum Contaminant Level.</br>* Total xylenes consist of three different chemical isomers (meta-xylene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene) but are typically regulated as total xylenes.
 |}
+</br clear left>
 ==Environmental&nbsp;Concern==
 Because of the widespread use of petroleum fuels, a large number of the cleanup sites in the United States include PHC contamination. The nature of PHC contamination is highly variable since PHCs themselves are diverse mixtures of chemical components. Several aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, naphthalene, and chrysene are known or probable/possible human carcinogens and are classified as priority pollutants by the USEPA<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2014. Priority Pollutant List. [[media:USEPA-2014 Priority Pollutant List.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref>. Benzene and PAHs are ranked sixth and ninth, respectively, on the [[Wikipedia:Superfund | Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)]] [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/#2019spl Substance Priority List]. This list is a prioritization of substances based on their frequency, toxicity, and potential for human exposure at sites on the National Priorities List (NPL)<ref name="ATSDR 2019"/>. Benzene is often the main groundwater contaminant of concern at petroleum release sites because of its higher toxicity and mobility compared to other petroleum hydrocarbons.

@@ Line 136: / Line 136: @@
 |}
-==Environmental Concern==
+==Environmental&nbsp;Concern==
 Because of the widespread use of petroleum fuels, a large number of the cleanup sites in the United States include PHC contamination. The nature of PHC contamination is highly variable since PHCs themselves are diverse mixtures of chemical components. Several aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, naphthalene, and chrysene are known or probable/possible human carcinogens and are classified as priority pollutants by the USEPA<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2014. Priority Pollutant List. [[media:USEPA-2014 Priority Pollutant List.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref>. Benzene and PAHs are ranked sixth and ninth, respectively, on the [[Wikipedia:Superfund | Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)]] [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/#2019spl Substance Priority List]. This list is a prioritization of substances based on their frequency, toxicity, and potential for human exposure at sites on the National Priorities List (NPL)<ref name="ATSDR 2019"/>. Benzene is often the main groundwater contaminant of concern at petroleum release sites because of its higher toxicity and mobility compared to other petroleum hydrocarbons.

@@ Line 157: / Line 157: @@
 Recently there has been interest in the presence and behavior of some petroleum metabolites called “polars” because they are polar molecules with a geometric arrangement with one end carrying a net positive charge and the other end a negative charge.  This is an emerging field, and researchers are evaluating the toxicity of the metabolites<ref>Zemo, D.A., O'Reilly, K.T., Mohler, R.E., Tiwary, A.K., Magaw, R.I., Synowiec, K.A., 2013. Nature and Estimated Human Toxicity of Polar Metabolite Mixtures in Groundwater Quantified as TPHd/DRO at Biodegrading Fuel Release Sites. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, 33(4), pp. 44-56. DOI: 10.1111/gwmr.12030&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Media:Zemo-2013_Toxicity_of_Polar_Metabolites.pdf | Report.pdf]]</ref> and the characteristic length of the metabolite plumes<ref>Bekins, B.A., Cozzarelli, I.M., Erickson, M.L., Steenson, R.A. and Thorn, K.A., 2016. Crude Oil Metabolites in Groundwater at Two Spill Sites. Groundwater, 54(5), pp.681-691. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12419 doi: 10.1111/gwat.12419] [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Melinda_Erickson/publication/309342084_ARE_CRUDE_OIL_METABOLITES_EMERGING_CONTAMINANTS/links/5a0aef24458515e48274025f/ARE-CRUDE-OIL-METABOLITES-EMERGING-CONTAMINANTS.pdf  Free Download.pdf]</ref>.
-Biodegradation is an important weathering and natural attenuation process for petroleum hydrocarbons. The rate of biodegradation depends on the hydrocarbon type, the microbial population present, and the geochemical and hydrological conditions in the subsurface. Because some hydrocarbons are naturally occurring in the environment, populations of bacteria and other organisms capable of degrading petroleum hydrocarbons to a certain extent are ubiquitous in soils and sediments<ref>Kennedy, L., Everett, J. and Gonzales, J., 2000. Aqueous and Mineral Intrinsic Bioremediation Assessment (AMIBA) Protocol: Brooks Air Force Base, TX, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Technology Transfer Division, 286 pages [[media:Kennedy-2000_AMIBA protocol.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref>Potter, T.L., and Simmons, K.E., 1998. Composition of Petroleum Mixtures, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series, Vol.2. Amherst Scientific Publishers, Amherst, Mass. ISBN 1-884-940-19-6&nbsp;&nbsp; Available from&nbsp;&nbsp;[https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/shopping/shopping.aspx?site=aehs&webcode=shopping&cart=0&shopsearch=Composition+of+Petroleum+Mixtures AEHS ]</ref><ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1999. Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation at Superfund, RCRA Corrective Action, and Underground Storage Tank Sites. [[media:USEPA-1999 Use of MNA at Superfund, RCRA and UST sites.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/>. Generally, petroleum hydrocarbons are good food sources (electron donors) for microorganisms because they contain high-energy electrons with abundant carbon-hydrogen bonds. Biodegradation of PHCs and fuel additives can occur under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions<ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/><ref name= "ITRC2005Overview"/>.
+Biodegradation is an important weathering and natural attenuation process for petroleum hydrocarbons. The rate of biodegradation depends on the hydrocarbon type, the microbial population present, and the geochemical and hydrological conditions in the subsurface. Because some hydrocarbons are naturally occurring in the environment, populations of bacteria and other organisms capable of degrading petroleum hydrocarbons to a certain extent are ubiquitous in soils and sediments<ref>Kennedy, L., Everett, J. and Gonzales, J., 2000. Aqueous and Mineral Intrinsic Bioremediation Assessment (AMIBA) Protocol: Brooks Air Force Base, TX, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Technology Transfer Division, 286 pages [[media:Kennedy-2000_AMIBA protocol.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref>Potter, T.L., and Simmons, K.E., 1998. Composition of Petroleum Mixtures, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series, Vol.2. Amherst Scientific Publishers, Amherst, Mass. ISBN 1-884-940-19-6&nbsp;&nbsp; Available from&nbsp;&nbsp;[https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/shopping/shopping.aspx?site=aehs&webcode=shopping&cart=0&shopsearch=Composition+of+Petroleum+Mixtures AEHS ]</ref><ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1999. Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation at Superfund, RCRA Corrective Action, and Underground Storage Tank Sites. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response Directive 9200.4-17P. [[media:USEPA-1999 Use of MNA at Superfund, RCRA and UST sites.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/>. Generally, petroleum hydrocarbons are good food sources (electron donors) for microorganisms because they contain high-energy electrons with abundant carbon-hydrogen bonds. Biodegradation of PHCs and fuel additives can occur under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions<ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/><ref name= "ITRC2005Overview"/>.
 ==Applicable Remediation Technologies==

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 *[[Sorption of Organic Contaminants]]
 *[[Natural Source Zone Depletion (NSZD)]]
-*LNAPL Remediation Technologies (Coming soon)
+*[[LNAPL Remediation Technologies]]
 *[[NAPL Mobility]]
 *LNAPL Conceptual Site Model (Coming soon)

@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 PHCs are generally divided into two groups: [[wikipedia: Aliphatic compound | aliphatics]] and [[Wikipedia: Aromaticity | aromatics]]. Aliphatics include: a) alkanes that contain single bonds between carbon atoms and have formulas of CnH2n+2, b) alkenes, which contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms and have formulas of CnH2n, and c) cycloalkanes, which contain single-bonded carbon atoms in cyclic structures. Aromatics have one or more benzene rings as part of their structure. Monoaromatics have one benzene ring as part of their structure while polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contain two or more bonded benzene rings. Table 1 summarizes the physical and chemical properties of selected PHCs and fuel additives.
-{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center;"
+{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="float:left; margin-right:20px; text-align:center;"
 |+ Table 1. Nomenclature, Structure, Chemical and Physical Properties of Selected Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Fuel Additives.
 |-

@@ Line 155: / Line 155: @@
 Components of heavier fuel oils such as complex PAHs like anthracene, phenanthrene, and benzo[a]pyrene more often occur at releases from aboveground storage tanks (ASTs) and oil terminal operations. Most PAHs, because of their low volatility, are classified as semi-volatile organic compounds and are far less soluble in water than other PHC constituents. Since PAHs are generally insoluble in water and have high [[Sorption of Organic Contaminants |  ''K<sub>oc</sub>'']] values, they typically adsorb to sediments and soil and do not form extensive plumes<ref name= "Williams2006"/>.
-Recently there has been interest in the presence and behavior of some petroleum metabolites called “polars” because they are polar molecules with a geometric arrangement with one end carrying a net positive charge and the other end a negative charge.  This is an emerging field, and researchers are evaluating the toxicity of the metabolites<ref>Zemo, D.A., O'Reilly, K.T., Mohler, R.E., Tiwary, A.K., Magaw, R.I., Synowiec, K.A., 2013. Nature and Estimated Human Toxicity of Polar Metabolite Mixtures in Groundwater Quantified as TPHd/DRO at Biodegrading Fuel Release Sites. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, 33(4), pp. 44-56. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwmr.12030  doi: 10.1111/gwmr.12030 ]</ref> and the characteristic length of the metabolite plumes<ref>Bekins, B.A., Cozzarelli, I.M., Erickson, M.L., Steenson, R.A. and Thorn, K.A., 2016. Crude Oil Metabolites in Groundwater at Two Spill Sites. Groundwater, 54(5), pp.681-691. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12419 doi: 10.1111/gwat.12419] [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Melinda_Erickson/publication/309342084_ARE_CRUDE_OIL_METABOLITES_EMERGING_CONTAMINANTS/links/5a0aef24458515e48274025f/ARE-CRUDE-OIL-METABOLITES-EMERGING-CONTAMINANTS.pdf  Free Download.pdf]</ref>.
+Recently there has been interest in the presence and behavior of some petroleum metabolites called “polars” because they are polar molecules with a geometric arrangement with one end carrying a net positive charge and the other end a negative charge.  This is an emerging field, and researchers are evaluating the toxicity of the metabolites<ref>Zemo, D.A., O'Reilly, K.T., Mohler, R.E., Tiwary, A.K., Magaw, R.I., Synowiec, K.A., 2013. Nature and Estimated Human Toxicity of Polar Metabolite Mixtures in Groundwater Quantified as TPHd/DRO at Biodegrading Fuel Release Sites. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, 33(4), pp. 44-56. DOI: 10.1111/gwmr.12030&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Media:Zemo-2013_Toxicity_of_Polar_Metabolites.pdf | Report.pdf]]</ref> and the characteristic length of the metabolite plumes<ref>Bekins, B.A., Cozzarelli, I.M., Erickson, M.L., Steenson, R.A. and Thorn, K.A., 2016. Crude Oil Metabolites in Groundwater at Two Spill Sites. Groundwater, 54(5), pp.681-691. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12419 doi: 10.1111/gwat.12419] [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Melinda_Erickson/publication/309342084_ARE_CRUDE_OIL_METABOLITES_EMERGING_CONTAMINANTS/links/5a0aef24458515e48274025f/ARE-CRUDE-OIL-METABOLITES-EMERGING-CONTAMINANTS.pdf  Free Download.pdf]</ref>.
 Biodegradation is an important weathering and natural attenuation process for petroleum hydrocarbons. The rate of biodegradation depends on the hydrocarbon type, the microbial population present, and the geochemical and hydrological conditions in the subsurface. Because some hydrocarbons are naturally occurring in the environment, populations of bacteria and other organisms capable of degrading petroleum hydrocarbons to a certain extent are ubiquitous in soils and sediments<ref>Kennedy, L., Everett, J. and Gonzales, J., 2000. Aqueous and Mineral Intrinsic Bioremediation Assessment (AMIBA) Protocol: Brooks Air Force Base, TX, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Technology Transfer Division, 286 pages [[media:Kennedy-2000_AMIBA protocol.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref>Potter, T.L., and Simmons, K.E., 1998. Composition of Petroleum Mixtures, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series, Vol.2. Amherst Scientific Publishers, Amherst, Mass. ISBN 1-884-940-19-6&nbsp;&nbsp; Available from&nbsp;&nbsp;[https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/shopping/shopping.aspx?site=aehs&webcode=shopping&cart=0&shopsearch=Composition+of+Petroleum+Mixtures AEHS ]</ref><ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1999. Use of monitored natural attenuation at superfund, RCRA corrective action, and underground storage tank sites. [[media:USEPA-1999 Use of MNA at Superfund, RCRA and UST sites.pdf| Report.pdf]]</ref><ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/>. Generally, petroleum hydrocarbons are good food sources (electron donors) for microorganisms because they contain high-energy electrons with abundant carbon-hydrogen bonds. Biodegradation of PHCs and fuel additives can occur under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions<ref name= "Wiedemeier1999"/><ref name= "ITRC2005Overview"/>.