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==Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Systems for PFAS Removal==  
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==Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes==  
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[[Wikipedia: Nanofiltration | Nanofiltration (NF)]] or [[Wikipedia: Reverse osmosis | reverse osmosis (RO)]] are engineered polymeric filters designed to remove solutes down to the atomic and molecular size scale<ref name="Wilf2019">Wilf, M., 2019. Basic Terms and Definitions, Chapter 3 in Desalination: Water from Water, 2nd Edition, J. Kucera, Editor. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-1-119-40774-4 [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119407874.ch3 doi: 10.1002/9781119407874.ch3]</ref><ref name="BellonaEtAl2004">Bellona, C., Drewes, J., Xu, P., Amy, G., 2004. Factors affecting the rejection of organic solutes during NF/RO treatment—a literature review. Water Research, 38(12), p. 2795-2809. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.03.034 doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2004.03.034]</ref><ref name="BazarganSalgado2018">Bazargan, A., Salgado, B., 2018. Fundamentals of Desalination Technology, in A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Desalination, A. Bazargan, Editor.  River Publishers. p. 41-66. ISBN 9788793379541. [https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003336914 doi: 10.1201/9781003336914]</ref>. RO, and to a lesser extent NF, has been implemented in a variety of water treatment applications including seawater and brackish water desalination, surface water treatment, industrial process water separation, and purification applications<ref name="Wilf2019"/><ref name="BellonaEtAl2004"/><ref name="BazarganSalgado2018"/><ref name="TurekEtAl2017">Turek, M., Mitko, K., Piotrowski, K., Dydo, P., Laskowska, E., Jakóbik-Kolon, A., 2017. Prospects for high water recovery membrane desalination. Desalination, 401, p. 180-189. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.07.047 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2016.07.047]</ref><ref name="PanagopoulosEtAl2019">Panagopoulos, A., Haralambous, K.-J., Loizidou, M., 2019. Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies - A review. Science of The Total Environment, 693, Article 133545. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351 doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351]</ref><ref name="WarsingerEtAl2018">Warsinger, D.M., Chakraborty, S., Tow, E.W., Plumlee, M.H., Bellona, C., Loutatidou, S., Karimi, L., Mikelonis, A.M., Achilli, A., Ghassemi, A., Padhye, L.P., Snyder, S.A., Curcio, S., Vecitis, C.D., Arafat, H.A., Lienhard, J.H., 2018. A review of polymeric membranes and processes for potable water reuse. Progress in Polymer Science, 81, p. 209-237. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.01.004 doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.01.004]</ref><ref name="Yan2017">Yan, D., 2017. Membrane Desalination Technologies, Chapter 6 in A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Desalination, A. Bazargan, Editor. River Publishers, p. 155-199. ISBN: 9788793379541</ref><ref name="Bellona2019">Bellona, C., 2019. Nanofiltration - Theory and Application, Chapter 4 in Desalination: Water from Water, 2nd Edition, J. Kucera, Editor. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-1-119-40774-4. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118904855.ch4 doi: 10.1002/9781118904855.ch4]</ref>. RO and NF use semi-permeable membranes that limit diffusion of solutes into the product water (i.e., permeate) through [[Wikipedia: Steric effects | steric]] and electrostatic exclusion from the membrane polymer<ref name="BellonaEtAl2004"/>. Due to the molecular size and ionic character of [[Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) | per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)]], past research has demonstrated that both RO and NF membranes can achieve a high degree of separation (i.e., rejection) of PFAS<ref name="ApplemanEtAl2013">Appleman, T.D., Dickenson, E.R.V., Bellona, C., Higgins, C.P., 2013. Nanofiltration and granular activated carbon treatment of perfluoroalkyl acids. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 260, p. 740-746. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.06.033 doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.06.033]</ref><ref name="Steinle-DarlingReinhard2008">Steinle-Darling, E., Reinhard, M., 2008. Nanofiltration for Trace Organic Contaminant Removal: Structure, Solution, and Membrane Fouling Effects on the Rejection of Perfluorochemicals. Environmental Science and Technology, 42(14), p. 5292-5297. [https://doi.org/10.1021/es703207s doi: 10.1021/es703207s]</ref><ref name="SafulkoEtAl2023">Safulko, A., Cath, T.Y., Li, F., Tajdini, B., Boyd, M., Huehmer, R.P., Bellona, C., 2023. Rejection of perfluoroalkyl acids by nanofiltration and reverse osmosis in a high-recovery closed-circuit membrane filtration system. Separation and Purification Technology, 326, Article 124867. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.124867  doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.124867]  [[Media: SafulkoEtAl2023.pdf | Open Access Manuscript]]</ref>.  
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Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR<sup>®</sup>; US Pat. Nos. 10,384,246 and 10,688,545) is a cost-effective and adaptable low temperature thermal remediation technology that accelerates contaminant treatment. It achieves this by enhancing biotic and abiotic contaminant degradation rates through a modest increase in subsurface temperature. TISR<sup>®</sup> is suitable for a wide range of hydrogeologic settings. It also offers reduced operational costs, a lower carbon footprint, and possibly shorter remedial timeframes than more conventional methods.
 
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
 
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
  
 
'''Related Article(s):'''
 
'''Related Article(s):'''
  
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*[[Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)]]
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*[[Thermal Remediation]]
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*[[PFAS Ex Situ Water Treatment]]
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*[[Thermal Remediation - Electrical Resistance Heating | Electrical Resistance Heating]]
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*[[PFAS Sources]]
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*[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]
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*[[PFAS Transport and Fate]]
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*[[Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies | Combined Remedies]]
  
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'''Contributors:''' Dr. Wenqing Xu
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'''Contributors:''' Jonah Munholland, Julia Vidonish, and Craig Divine
  
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'''Key Resource(s):'''
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'''Key Resources:'''
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*Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. ESTCP Project ER20-5028<ref>Divine, C., Munholland, J., Zardouzian, E., Justicia-Leon, S., Aspinall, J.V., Randhawa, D., Falta, R., Freedman, D., Becker, M., 2025. Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER20-5028. [https://serdp-estcp.mil/projects/details/bab4bc87-b4bc-42df-ad0e-11ea0adf27dc/er20-5028-project-overview Project Website]&nbsp; [[Media: ER20-5028 FR DevineEtAl2025.pdf | Final Report.pdf]]</ref>.
  
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*Experimental and Computational Study of Pyrogenic Carbonaceous Matter Facilitated Hydrolysis of 2, 4-Dinitroanisole (DNAN)<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024">Seenthia, N.I., Bylaska, E.J., Pignatello, J.J., Tratnyek, P.G., Beal, S.A., Xu, W., 2024. Experimental and Computational Study of Pyrogenic Carbonaceous Matter Facilitated Hydrolysis of 2, 4-Dinitroanisole (DNAN). Environmental Science and Technology, 58(21), pp. 9404–9415. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c01069 doi: 10.1021/acs.est.4c01069]&nbsp; [[Media: SeenthiaEtAl2024.pdf | Open Access pdf]]</ref>
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*Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. Munholland ''et al.'', 2024<ref name="MunhollandEtAl2024">Munholland, J, Rosso, D., Randhawa, D., Devine, C., Pennington, A., 2024. Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. In: García-Rincón, J., Gatsios, E., Lenhard, R.J., Atekwana, E.A., Naidu, R. (eds), Advances in the Characterisation and Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons, Chapter 18 pp. 623-653. Environmental Contamination Remediation and Management series, Springer Nature. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34447-3_18 doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-34447-3_18]&nbsp; [[Media: MunhollandEtAl2024.pdf | Open Access Chapter]]</ref>.
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*A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ornelles, Falta, and Divine, 2023<ref name="Ornelles">Ornelles, A.D., Falta, R.W., Divine, C.E., 2023. A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ground Water, 61(2), pp. 245-254. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13265 doi: 10.1111/gwat.13265]&nbsp; [https://ngwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gwat.13265 Free download from NGWA]</ref>.
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*Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Horst, ''et al.'', 2018<ref name="HorstEtAl2018">Horst, J., Flanders, C., Klemmer, M., Randhawa, D.S., Rosso, D., 2018. Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 38(3), pp. 18-27. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwmr.12295 doi: 10.1111/gwmr.12295]</ref>.
  
 
==Introduction==
 
==Introduction==
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Historically, pyrogenic carbonaceous matter (PCM) has been used to remove contaminants from the aqueous phase by adsorption and/or complexation, but it was not believed to facilitate their degradation. A recent [https://serdp-estcp.mil/ Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)] project ([https://serdp-estcp.mil/projects/details/047de8e1-0202-40ba-8bf6-cbd89bcc5b46 ER19-1239]) developed evidence that PCM not only adsorbs but also catalyzes the hydrolysis of some munition constituents, thus potentially reducing the need for regeneration or replacement of the adsorbent material and thereby reducing costs associated with management of these contaminants. This project found that PCM can facilitate MC degradation on carbon surfaces and thus free up adsorption sites, allowing PCM to remove a significantly greater mass of some MCs than would be possible by adsorption alone. Any MCs such as [[Wikipedia: Nitrotriazolone | 3-Nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO)]] that are not susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis can be safely sequestered within the carbon amendment, decreasing their bioavailability to the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the tested technology boosts alkaline hydrolysis at near-neutral pH conditions rather than high pH conditions required by current methods (i.e., lime treatment). Bench studies using soils collected from Department of Defense ranges demonstrated enhanced adsorption affinity (over three orders of magnitude) for highly mobile IHEs such as NTO because the PCM amendments maintained their reactivity over consecutive additions of IHE formulations. The findings suggest that PCM has the potential to be developed and deployed as a reactive amendment for environmental remediation of MCs. Future efforts are needed to demonstrate these materials at full scale in the field.
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[[File: MunhollandFig1.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 1: Components and layout of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
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TISR<sup>®</sup> utilizes [[Wikipedia: Downhole heat exchanger | borehole heat exchangers (BHEs)]] to heat target treatment areas in the subsurface. This is achieved through a combination of solar collectors, which harness solar radiation as heat, and the utilization of other heat sources such as waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps. That heat is then transferred to the subsurface via a closed loop circulation system connected to the BHEs (Figure 1). By incorporating these additional heat sources, TISR<sup>®</sup> ensures a more robust and constant heat supply, enabling customization of the system to address specific site challenges and facilitate efficient heat transfer.
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The heating of the subsurface through TISR<sup>®</sup> accelerates various processes such as biodegradation, abiotic reactions, and contaminant desorption and dissolution. The technology is also suitable for diverse hydrogeologic environments, including sites with low permeability zones, due to the relatively uniform thermal conductivity of geologic materials, which is unaffected by grain size<ref name="MunhollandEtAl2024"/>. This versatility allows TISR<sup>®</sup> to integrate with conventional remediation technologies, enhancing their performance.
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One of the key advantages of TISR<sup>®</sup> is its ability to accelerate treatment processes while minimizing energy consumption. By harnessing renewable and sustainable energy sources such as solar radiation and effectively utilizing waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps, TISR<sup>®</sup> delivers an efficient, cost-effective remediation solution. Compatibility with multiple conventional remediation technologies makes it an effective option for addressing a variety of contamination challenges.
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==Scientific Principles==
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[[File: MunhollandFig2.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 2: Effect of temperature on hydrolysis rates for VOCs]]
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During the TISR<sup>®</sup> heating process, thermal conduction and advection play a crucial role in boosting physical, biological, and chemical processes within the treatment zones, leading to enhanced attenuation, degradation, and removal of contaminants from the subsurface<ref>Dettmer, K., 2002. A Discussion of the Effects of Thermal Remediation Treatments on Microbial Degradation Processes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office, Washington, DC. [[Media: dettmer2002.pdf | free report]]&nbsp; [https://www.clu-in.org/download/techdrct/dettmer.pdf free download from clu-in.org]</ref><ref name="HorstEtAl2018"/>. TISR<sup>®</sup> systems are typically designed to enhance the biological activity and performance of other active technologies, such as [[Wikipedia: Air sparging | air sparge]]/[[Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) | soil vapor extraction]] (AS/SVE) or [[Chemical Oxidation (In Situ - ISCO) | chemical oxidation]], by increasing the subsurface temperature by approximately 10°C to 20°C. The target groundwater temperature is often set to reach up to about 35°C, which is the optimal temperature for promoting the activity of mesophilic microbial communities responsible for biodegradation of certain contaminants. In cases where the objective is to maximize abiotic hydrolysis mechanisms, such as for some chlorinated alkanes, TISR<sup>®</sup> systems can be designed to reach a final groundwater temperature of up to 60°C.
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The effectiveness of TISR<sup>®</sup> in enhancing treatment performance has been demonstrated through several mechanisms, which are discussed below:
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*Primary dechlorinating bacteria, such as [[Wikipedia: Dehalococcoides | Dehalococcoides]] and [[Wikipedia: Dehalogenimonas | Dehalogenimonas]], are known to be [[Wikipedia: Mesophile | mesophilic]]. Therefore, increasing the temperature can significantly enhance microbial activity and biodegradation by multiple orders of magnitude<ref>Macbeth, T., Truex, M., Powell, T., Michalsen, M., 2012. Combining Low-Energy Electrical Resistance Heating with Biotic and Abiotic Reactions for Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent DNAPL Source Areas. [https://serdp-estcp.mil/ Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)] [https://serdp-estcp.mil/projects/details/877a3b41-6bed-4f4a-b43a-87fbcd9b7f0b/er-200719-project-overview Project ER-200719 webpage]&nbsp; [[Media: Macbeth2012_ER-200719-FR.pdf | free download]]&nbsp; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EbwKbs8scE Project Summary Presentation]</ref>.
  
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Using a combined experimental and computational modeling approach, the structural features of MCs and PCM that are critical for PCM-facilitated hydrolysis were identified. Employing a polymer synthesis approach, the contribution of various functional groups and pore structures in promoting MC hydrolysis were delineated. The findings of this investigation have broad implications for reactive adsorbent design and remediation. For instance, the formation of [[Wikipedia: Sigma complex | σ complexes]] between -NH<sub>2</sub> surface functional groups and nitroaromatics suggests that PCM rich in -NH<sub>2</sub> functional groups could be easily poisoned due to the irreversible binding of [[Wikipedia: TNT | 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)]] or [[Wikipedia: 2,4-Dinitroanisole | 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN)]]. By contrast, [[Wikipedia: Quaternary ammonium cation | quaternary ammonium (QA)]] functional groups could accumulate TNT, DNAN and [[Wikipedia: Hydroxide | hydroxide (OH-)]] in the same spatial region, potentially enabling hydrolysis of the MCs. Therefore, efforts can be focused on populating specific functional groups on carbon amendments for groundwater and soil remediation. For example, increasing the abundance of QA groups while decreasing the presence of -NH<sub>2</sub> and -OH can reduce the need for PCM regeneration. This is because contaminants will be destroyed on PCM surfaces rather than filling up adsorption sites. Besides functional groups, the pore structures of adsorbents could also be adjusted to favor hydrolysis and specific pathways (see Figure 3).
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*Reduced iron minerals, particularly iron sulfides, can participate in the abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethenes and other contaminants. The rates of these reactions generally depend on temperature, following the [[Wikipedia: Arrhenius equation | Arrhenius equation]].
  
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A novel adsorption mechanism known as charge-assisted hydrogen bond (CAHB) formation was proposed to account for the exceptionally high affinity of PCM for MCs that do not undergo hydrolysis, such as NTO. The findings contradicted the conventional wisdom that polar organic anions (e.g., NTO) have little affinity for or are even repelled by hydrophobic carbonaceous sorbents. The results call attention to the need for new models or modification of existing models for the sorption of ionizable compounds in order to consider CAHB formation with sorbents. The findings also have potentially important implications for the use of carbons in environmental remediation more generally, particularly for strategies that enhance the retention of anionic contaminants that are otherwise highly mobile, such as nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, or some [[Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) | per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)]].
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*[[Wikipedia: Hydrolysis | Hydrolysis]] rates for certain compounds exhibit high temperature dependence. For example, a 10°C increase can lead to a 50% reduction in the half-life of [[Wikipedia: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane | 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA)]]<ref>Suthersan, S., Horst, J., Klemmer, M., Malone, D., 2012. Temperature-Activated Auto-Decomposition Reactions: An Under-Utilized In Situ Remediation Solution. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 32(3), pp. 34-40. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6592.2012.01407.x doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6592.2012.01407.x]</ref>. Figure 2 presents the calculated temperature-dependent hydrolysis rates for 13 common [[Wikipedia: Volatile organic compound | volatile organic compounds (VOCs)]] at a pH of 7.
  
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==Feasibility of PCM-facilitated Hydrolysis of MCs==
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*[[Wikipedia: Henry's law | Henry's Law]] constant, [[Wikipedia: Vapor pressure | vapor pressure]], solubility, and viscosity values are also temperature dependent. For instance, the Henry's Law constant values for many VOCs, including [[Wikipedia: Tetrachloroethylene | tetrachloroethene (PCE)]], have been observed to double between 8 and 24°C<ref>Chen, F., Freedman, D.L., Falta, R.W., Murdoch, L.C., 2012. Henry's law constants of chlorinated solvents at elevated temperatures. Chemosphere, 86(2), pp.156-165. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004]</ref>.
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[[File:XuFig1.png|thumb|500px|Figure 1. Proposed reaction mechanism for PCM-facilitated DNAN hydrolysis and associated transformation products<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024"/>]]
 
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Results of this study suggest that hydrolysis of TNT, DNAN, and [[Wikipedia: Nitroguanidine | nitroguanidine (NQ)]], can be enhanced by the presence of various PCMs. The transformation of TNT by graphite powder, a model PCM, exhibited first-order decay kinetics, with an observed rate constant (''k<sub>obs</sub>'') of 0.258 ± 0.010 day<sup>-1</sup> and a calculated half-life (''t<sub>1/2</sub>'') of 2.70 ± 0.10 days<ref name="Ding">Ding, K., Byrnes, C., Bridge, J., Grannas, A., Xu, W., 2018. Surface-promoted hydrolysis of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and 2,4-dinitroanisole on pyrogenic carbonaceous matter. Chemosphere, 197, pp. 603-610. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.01.038 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.01.038]</ref>. Slower degradation was observed for DNAN under the same conditions. Increasing the pH and the temperature enhanced the degradation kinetics of DNAN<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024"/>. More importantly, results suggest that PCM accelerated DNAN decay by lowering the activation energy of DNAN hydrolysis by 54.3 ± 3.9%. NQ is a monoprotic acid in water with a reported ''pK<sub>a</sub>'' value of 12.8. NQ undergoes significant base hydrolysis at pH values as low as 11.5. This study showed that PCM pre-equilibrated with NQ initially accelerated NQ hydrolysis at three pH conditions (pH 11.0, 11.5, and 12.5) compared to the aqueous reaction. However, after a few hours, hydrolysis in the presence of PCM slowed down, whereas aqueous hydrolysis continued apace, indicating that the physical and chemical properties of PCMs play critical roles in controlling the hydrolysis of MCs.
 
  
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==Key Properties of PCM for MC Hydrolysis==
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*Rates of other processes that often limit the pace of remediation, such as dissolution, desorption, and [[Matrix Diffusion | back diffusion]], are positively correlated with temperature. This results in an enhanced bioavailability of contaminant mass that may otherwise be inaccessible.
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[[File:XuFig2.png | thumb |400px| Figure 2: Proposed role of PCM properties in accelerating TNT hydrolysis<ref name="Li"/>]]
 
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To investigate the effect of PCM functional group identity and pore characteristics on MC hydrolysis, a PCM-like polymer (PLP) platform was developed to allow for delineating individual PCM properties’ contributions using a reductionist approach. PLPs exhibit properties that are similar to PCM: (i) large surface area and high microporosity, (ii) highly conjugated and amorphous, and (iii) superior affinity for apolar organic contaminants. Unlike PCM, the attributes of PLP can be individually tuned and made homogeneously throughout the polymer networks. Specifically, six PLPs were synthesized via cross-coupling chemistry with specific functionality (i.e., -OH, -NH<sub>2</sub>, -N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, and -N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>) and pore characteristics (i.e., mesopore, micropore). Different surface functional groups were incorporated into the PLPs by adapting the synthesis approach described in previous work<ref name="Li">Li, Z., Jorn, R., Samonte, P.R.V., Mao, J., Sivey, J.D., Pignatello, J.J., Xu, W., 2022. Surface-catalyzed hydrolysis by pyrogenic carbonaceous matter and model polymers: An experimental and computational study on functional group and pore characteristics. Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy, 319, article 121877. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2022.121877 doi: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2022.121877]&nbsp; [[Media: LiEtAl2022.pdf | Open Access Manuscript]]</ref>. The pore characteristics of PLP were controlled by rigid node-strut topology, where two polymers were obtained, one with exclusively mesopores and the other with a mixture of micropores and mesopores. This showed that -OH and -NH<sub>2</sub> functional groups can serve as weak bases to facilitate TNT hydrolysis, whereas -N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> groups can increase the local pH by accumulating OH<sup>-</sup> near PCM surfaces. Moreover, the micropores of PCM seem capable of altering the chemical environment around TNT molecules (including their location and orientation) in such a way as to facilitate their hydrolysis. This study attempted to scrutinize the complex properties of PCM that promote surface hydrolysis, namely the functional group identity and pore characteristics.
 
  
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==Enhanced Hydrolysis of TNT and DNAN with Modified PCM==
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These various mechanisms collectively contribute to the improved performance of other active treatments when temperature is moderately increased by utilization of TISR®.
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This investigation proposes that PCMs can affect the thermodynamics and kinetics of hydrolysis reactions by confining the reaction species near PCM surfaces, thus making them less accessible to solvent molecules and creating an environment with a weaker dielectric constant that favors nucleophilic substitution reactions. The addition of QA groups on the PCM surface can further accelerate MC hydrolysis. The performance of PCM toward DNAN hydrolysis was evaluated by comparing the MC decay kinetics across various PCM types, including unmodified PCMs such as almond shell char or activated carbon (AC)), and modified PCMs with physical or chemically attached QA groups. The results suggest that QA-modified activated carbon performed the best by reducing the half-life of DNAN to 2.5 days at pH 11.5 and 25°C while maintaining its reactivity over ten consecutive additions of DNAN<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024"/>. TNT exhibited faster decay in samples containing QA-modified AC than unmodified AC, with an estimated half-life of 0.2 days and 1 day, respectively<ref name="Li"/>. Nitrite was observed as one of the transformation products for both DNAN and TNT, suggesting the presence of PCM favored the denitration pathway. By contrast, demethylation, the preferred pathway in homogeneous solution, produces [[Wikipedia: 2,4-Dinitrophenol | 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)]]. Denitration catalyzed by PCM was advantageous when compared to demethylation because nitrite is less toxic than DNAN and DNP. Overall, the results suggest that further improvement of the PCM performance could be expected by tailoring its surface to increase the abundance of QA while decreasing the presence of -NH<sub>2</sub> or -OH groups for the hydrolysis of MCs.  
 
  
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==Computational Modeling==
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==Implementation and Practical Considerations==
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[[File:XuFig3.png | thumb |400px| Figure 3. (a) Ball-and-stick model of TNT confined between four layers of graphene with quaternary ammonium groups with a 4-nm distance, black = graphite, green = TNT, purple = ammonium groups, orange = chloride ions, blue = hydroxide oxygens<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024"/>. (b) (Top) Molecular snapshot from an AIMD/MM simulation: DNAN + [OH<sup>-</sup>] → DNAN-2-OH + nitrite in a nano-pore, containing DNAN,  hydroxide, Na<sup>+</sup> counter-ion, and 43 H<sub>2</sub>O, at a concentration of 1.3 M. (Bottom) Reaction pathways: Nucleophilic aromatic reaction of DNAN + [OH<sup>-</sup>] → DNAN-2-OH + Nitrite in solution and within a nano-pore, investigated using PBE and PBE0 AIMD/MM free energy simulations with WHAM. Each pathway used approximately 0.5 ns of simulation time<ref name="Li"/>.]]
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[[File: MunhollandFig3.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 3: Transformation of 1,1-DCE and VC following installation of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
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Further mechanistic insights were obtained by performing non-reactive molecular dynamics simulations on idealized pore structures. Upon the introduction of positively charged QA groups, the structure changed dramatically at the PCM interface. As the number of surface groups increased, the resulting density of OH<sup>-</sup> at the PCM surface increased by a factor of four relative to the density in the middle of the pore. Hence, the impact of the surface-bound cations was to attract OH<sup>-</sup> in competition with the neutralizing anions in the environment. In addition to driving the accumulation of OH<sup>-</sup>, the surface QA groups also impacted the distribution of TNT in the pore. At low QA surface coverage, TNT sought to adsorb on the exposed graphene. However, at sufficiently high QA surface coverage, TNT was blocked from lying flat on the graphene sheet and instead aggregated in the fluid away from the pore wall. The observation of TNT surface layering at intermediate charge densities was intriguing because it demonstrated the collection of TNT molecules close to the surface in the same spatial region where hydroxide was likewise accumulating relative to its concentration in the interstitial fluid. The molecular dynamics simulations provided evidence that the presence of the surface groups can play a role in accelerating TNT hydrolysis by acting to concentrate both TNT and hydroxide near the pore wall<ref name="Li"/>.
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TISR<sup>®</sup> has proven successful in reducing contaminant concentrations across diverse hydrogeologic settings, including those with low and complex hydraulic conductivity conditions. Figure 3 shows a sharp initial decrease in [[Wikipedia: 1,1-Dichloroethylene | 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE)]] concentrations due to enhanced biodegradation, and then a temporary small increase followed by subsequent decreases in 1,1-DCE concentrations to below detection limits, possibly the result of temperature-enhanced desorption or dissolution of 1,1-DCE from the aquifer. There is also a temporary increase and then decrease in the concentrations of [[Wikipedia: Vinyl chloride | vinyl chloride (VC)]] (a biodegradation product) to very low levels.  
  
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[[Wikipedia: Molecular dynamics#Potentials in ab initio methods | ''Ab Initio'' Molecular Dynamics/Molecular Mechanics (AIMD/MM)]] free energy simulations using expanded slabs and unit cells were also performed, focusing on the interaction of DNAN, hydroxide ions, Na<sup>+</sup>, and multiple water molecules sandwiched between two graphene layers<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2024"/>. The upper panel of Figure 3(b)  provides a molecular snapshot from the AIMD/MM simulation, showcasing the intermediate stage of DNAN reacting with a hydroxide ion within a nano-pore structure. The lower panel depicts the reaction energy profiles for the hydrolysis of DNAN, both in bulk aqueous solution and within the nano-pore environment. The x-axis represents the reaction coordinate, a schematic representation of the progression from reactants to products through various transition states and intermediates. The y-axis corresponds to the [[Wikipedia: Gibbs free energy| Gibbs free energy]] changes (ΔG), providing insights into the thermodynamic favorability of each step in the pathway. Lower barriers corresponded to more kinetically accessible reactions. In the nano-pore environment, the energy barriers were significantly reduced, suggesting a catalytic effect due to confinement. This reduction was quantified by a decrease in ΔG of approximately 8 kcal/mol compared to the bulk solution, indicating that the reactions were not only more thermodynamically favorable but also kinetically accelerated in the nano-pore. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that nano-pore environments can significantly alter the hydrolysis mechanism of DNAN, leading to potentially less toxic products.  
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The TISR<sup>®</sup> system construction utilizes off-the-shelf modular components, promoting cost-efficiency, reusability, and a reduced carbon footprint. Waste heat can supplement or replace the solar setup, and remote monitoring through dashboard apps reduces operation and maintenance costs. TISR® projects typically achieve an average capital cost payback within 1 to 3 years due to accelerated rates of remediation.
  
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==Exceptionally Strong NTO Adsorption on PCM==
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When implementing TISR<sup>®</sup>, [[Wikipedia: Solar irradiance | solar insolation]] and groundwater velocity must be considered for optimal equipment sizing and cycling. Depending on remedial goals and site history and conditions, the TISR<sup>®</sup> system and target temperatures may be designed to enhance specific remedial mechanisms (e.g. hydrolysis over bioremediation). Recently Ornelles ''et al.''<ref name="Ornelles"/> developed an easy to use Excel-based model that can be used to optimize TISR<sup>®</sup> design and predict subsurface temperature changes over time. Frequent monitoring of the temperature and microbial community composition relative to targets is useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness and optimizing system performance. The system and target temperatures can be customized to enhance specific remedial mechanisms based on site conditions and goals.  
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[[File:XuFig4.png | thumb |500px| Figure 4. Proposed formation of charge-assisted hydrogen bond between NTO and weak acid functional groups on the carbon surface<ref name="Abdelraheem"/>.]]
 
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Results from this project suggest that NTO was chemically stable for up to at least a week in NaOH solution at pH 13.8<ref name="Abdelraheem">Abdelraheem, W., Meng, L., Pignatello, J.J., Seenthia, N.I., Xu, W., 2024. Participation of Strong H-Bonding to Acidic Groups Contributes to the Intense Sorption of the Anionic Munition, Nitrotriazolone (NTO) to the Carbon, Filtrasorb 400. Environmental Science and Technology, 58(46), pp. 20719-20728. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c07055 doi: 10.1021/acs.est.4c07055]</ref>. Despite its highly polar and anionic character (''pK<sub>a</sub>'' = 3.78), NTO exhibited unexpectedly strong sorption toward PCM at environmentally relevant pH conditions. This high affinity was partly due to the formation of an exceptionally strong negative charge-assisted hydrogen bond, or (−)CAHB, with weak acid functional groups on the carbon surface. The CAHB was identified by evaluating adsorption isotherms, pH adsorption edge plots, competitive sorption experiments, and pH drift experiments. The findings contradict the conventional view that polar organic anions have little affinity for or are even repelled by hydrophobic carbonaceous sorbents. The results call attention to the need for new models or modification of existing models for the sorption of ionizable compounds that consider CAHB formation with sorbents. The findings also have potential implications for the use of carbons in environmental remediation and catalysis, particularly for the design of strategies for the retention and degradation of highly mobile contaminants.
 
  
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==Performance of Modified PCM as Soil Amendments for IHE Post-Detonation Residues==
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==Summary==
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Batch and column tests were conducted to evaluate the adsorption and hydrolysis of post-detonation residues of [[Wikipedia: IMX-101 | IMX-101]] in three DoD range soils amended with modified PCMs<ref name="SeenthiaEtAl2025">Seenthia, N.I., Abdelraheem, W., Beal, S.A., Pignatello, J.J., Xu, W., 2025. Simultaneous adsorption and hydrolysis of insensitive munition compounds by pyrogenic carbonaceous matter (PCM) and functionalized PCM in soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 494, article 138501. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138501 doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138501]</ref>. Results indicated that adding PCMs enhanced the removal of NTO, NQ, and DNAN in soils compared to the soil controls, with enhancement factors ranging from 50 to 300. Consistent with previous results, NTO exhibited the highest partition coefficients (''K<sub>d</sub>'') in PCM-amended soils compared to DNAN and NQ despite its highly polar and anionic character. Among various PCMs, QA-modified AC performed best, followed by unmodified AC and chars. The ''K<sub>d</sub>'' values of NTO, NQ, and DNAN were slightly lower in the IMX-101 mixture than individually, possibly due to the adsorption competition from other constituents in IMX-101. The treatment was evaluated at pH 8, 10, and 12. No NTO decay was observed across the investigated pH range with or without PCM. By contrast, up to 13% of NQ was removed but only at pH > 10. Up to 90% DNAN decay occurred at pH 10 and 12 over 7 days in soils amended with modified AC. The 2% amendment dose was most effective, maintaining its adsorption capacity and reactivity over three consecutive IMX-101 additions. Column tests confirmed that 2% PCM addition significantly delayed the NTO, NQ, and DNAN breakthrough. The breakthrough volume (defined as treatment volume resulting in Concentration<sub>out</sub>=0.1*Concentration<sub>in</sub>) of NTO, NQ, and DNAN correlated with their ''K<sub>d</sub>'' values obtained from the batch tests, where no retention was observed in the absence of PCM amendments. These findings highlight the feasibility of using modified PCM to simultaneously retain and transform IMX residues, providing a strategy for using reactive amendments ''in situ'' to sustain military operation and pollutant abatement.
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TISR<sup>®</sup> is a cost-effective and adaptable technology that can be customized to address specific site challenges. It can be used as a standalone solution or be integrated with existing remediation strategies to enhance their effectiveness. TISR<sup>®</sup> is particularly effective in challenging hydrogeological conditions and can be optimized to suit specific treatment mechanisms. By shortening the active remediation timeframe, TISR<sup>®</sup> reduces lifecycle costs and minimizes the carbon footprint associated with the remediation process.
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==References==
 
==References==
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==See Also==
 
==See Also==
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[https://vimeo.com/1019489395 TISR<sup>®</sup> Explanation Video]

Latest revision as of 19:44, 13 October 2026

Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes

Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR®; US Pat. Nos. 10,384,246 and 10,688,545) is a cost-effective and adaptable low temperature thermal remediation technology that accelerates contaminant treatment. It achieves this by enhancing biotic and abiotic contaminant degradation rates through a modest increase in subsurface temperature. TISR® is suitable for a wide range of hydrogeologic settings. It also offers reduced operational costs, a lower carbon footprint, and possibly shorter remedial timeframes than more conventional methods.

Related Article(s):

Contributors: Jonah Munholland, Julia Vidonish, and Craig Divine

Key Resources:

  • Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. ESTCP Project ER20-5028[1].
  • Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. Munholland et al., 2024[2].
  • A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ornelles, Falta, and Divine, 2023[3].
  • Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Horst, et al., 2018[4].

Introduction

File:MunhollandFig1.png
Figure 1: Components and layout of a TISR® system

TISR® utilizes borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) to heat target treatment areas in the subsurface. This is achieved through a combination of solar collectors, which harness solar radiation as heat, and the utilization of other heat sources such as waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps. That heat is then transferred to the subsurface via a closed loop circulation system connected to the BHEs (Figure 1). By incorporating these additional heat sources, TISR® ensures a more robust and constant heat supply, enabling customization of the system to address specific site challenges and facilitate efficient heat transfer.

The heating of the subsurface through TISR® accelerates various processes such as biodegradation, abiotic reactions, and contaminant desorption and dissolution. The technology is also suitable for diverse hydrogeologic environments, including sites with low permeability zones, due to the relatively uniform thermal conductivity of geologic materials, which is unaffected by grain size[2]. This versatility allows TISR® to integrate with conventional remediation technologies, enhancing their performance.

One of the key advantages of TISR® is its ability to accelerate treatment processes while minimizing energy consumption. By harnessing renewable and sustainable energy sources such as solar radiation and effectively utilizing waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps, TISR® delivers an efficient, cost-effective remediation solution. Compatibility with multiple conventional remediation technologies makes it an effective option for addressing a variety of contamination challenges.

Scientific Principles

File:MunhollandFig2.png
Figure 2: Effect of temperature on hydrolysis rates for VOCs

During the TISR® heating process, thermal conduction and advection play a crucial role in boosting physical, biological, and chemical processes within the treatment zones, leading to enhanced attenuation, degradation, and removal of contaminants from the subsurface[5][4]. TISR® systems are typically designed to enhance the biological activity and performance of other active technologies, such as air sparge/ soil vapor extraction (AS/SVE) or chemical oxidation, by increasing the subsurface temperature by approximately 10°C to 20°C. The target groundwater temperature is often set to reach up to about 35°C, which is the optimal temperature for promoting the activity of mesophilic microbial communities responsible for biodegradation of certain contaminants. In cases where the objective is to maximize abiotic hydrolysis mechanisms, such as for some chlorinated alkanes, TISR® systems can be designed to reach a final groundwater temperature of up to 60°C.

The effectiveness of TISR® in enhancing treatment performance has been demonstrated through several mechanisms, which are discussed below:

  • Primary dechlorinating bacteria, such as Dehalococcoides and Dehalogenimonas, are known to be mesophilic. Therefore, increasing the temperature can significantly enhance microbial activity and biodegradation by multiple orders of magnitude[6].
  • Reduced iron minerals, particularly iron sulfides, can participate in the abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethenes and other contaminants. The rates of these reactions generally depend on temperature, following the Arrhenius equation.
  • Rates of other processes that often limit the pace of remediation, such as dissolution, desorption, and back diffusion, are positively correlated with temperature. This results in an enhanced bioavailability of contaminant mass that may otherwise be inaccessible.

These various mechanisms collectively contribute to the improved performance of other active treatments when temperature is moderately increased by utilization of TISR®.

Implementation and Practical Considerations

File:MunhollandFig3.png
Figure 3: Transformation of 1,1-DCE and VC following installation of a TISR® system

TISR® has proven successful in reducing contaminant concentrations across diverse hydrogeologic settings, including those with low and complex hydraulic conductivity conditions. Figure 3 shows a sharp initial decrease in 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE) concentrations due to enhanced biodegradation, and then a temporary small increase followed by subsequent decreases in 1,1-DCE concentrations to below detection limits, possibly the result of temperature-enhanced desorption or dissolution of 1,1-DCE from the aquifer. There is also a temporary increase and then decrease in the concentrations of vinyl chloride (VC) (a biodegradation product) to very low levels.

The TISR® system construction utilizes off-the-shelf modular components, promoting cost-efficiency, reusability, and a reduced carbon footprint. Waste heat can supplement or replace the solar setup, and remote monitoring through dashboard apps reduces operation and maintenance costs. TISR® projects typically achieve an average capital cost payback within 1 to 3 years due to accelerated rates of remediation.

When implementing TISR®, solar insolation and groundwater velocity must be considered for optimal equipment sizing and cycling. Depending on remedial goals and site history and conditions, the TISR® system and target temperatures may be designed to enhance specific remedial mechanisms (e.g. hydrolysis over bioremediation). Recently Ornelles et al.[3] developed an easy to use Excel-based model that can be used to optimize TISR® design and predict subsurface temperature changes over time. Frequent monitoring of the temperature and microbial community composition relative to targets is useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness and optimizing system performance. The system and target temperatures can be customized to enhance specific remedial mechanisms based on site conditions and goals.

Summary

TISR® is a cost-effective and adaptable technology that can be customized to address specific site challenges. It can be used as a standalone solution or be integrated with existing remediation strategies to enhance their effectiveness. TISR® is particularly effective in challenging hydrogeological conditions and can be optimized to suit specific treatment mechanisms. By shortening the active remediation timeframe, TISR® reduces lifecycle costs and minimizes the carbon footprint associated with the remediation process.

References

  1. ^ Divine, C., Munholland, J., Zardouzian, E., Justicia-Leon, S., Aspinall, J.V., Randhawa, D., Falta, R., Freedman, D., Becker, M., 2025. Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER20-5028. Project Website  Final Report.pdf
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Munholland, J, Rosso, D., Randhawa, D., Devine, C., Pennington, A., 2024. Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. In: García-Rincón, J., Gatsios, E., Lenhard, R.J., Atekwana, E.A., Naidu, R. (eds), Advances in the Characterisation and Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons, Chapter 18 pp. 623-653. Environmental Contamination Remediation and Management series, Springer Nature. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-34447-3_18  Open Access Chapter
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Ornelles, A.D., Falta, R.W., Divine, C.E., 2023. A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ground Water, 61(2), pp. 245-254. doi: 10.1111/gwat.13265  Free download from NGWA
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Horst, J., Flanders, C., Klemmer, M., Randhawa, D.S., Rosso, D., 2018. Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 38(3), pp. 18-27. doi: 10.1111/gwmr.12295
  5. ^ Dettmer, K., 2002. A Discussion of the Effects of Thermal Remediation Treatments on Microbial Degradation Processes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office, Washington, DC. free report  free download from clu-in.org
  6. ^ Macbeth, T., Truex, M., Powell, T., Michalsen, M., 2012. Combining Low-Energy Electrical Resistance Heating with Biotic and Abiotic Reactions for Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent DNAPL Source Areas. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project ER-200719 webpage  free download  Project Summary Presentation
  7. ^ Suthersan, S., Horst, J., Klemmer, M., Malone, D., 2012. Temperature-Activated Auto-Decomposition Reactions: An Under-Utilized In Situ Remediation Solution. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 32(3), pp. 34-40. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6592.2012.01407.x
  8. ^ Chen, F., Freedman, D.L., Falta, R.W., Murdoch, L.C., 2012. Henry's law constants of chlorinated solvents at elevated temperatures. Chemosphere, 86(2), pp.156-165. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004

See Also

TISR® Explanation Video

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